3.3.1 Types of intelligence
Gardner recently added the naturalist category (Vincent & Ross, 2001) to these intelligences. Naturalistic intelligence is related to one's recognition, appreciation and understanding of the natural world. It involves the capacity to discern and discriminate among species, to recognise and classify flora and fauna and knowledge of and communion with the natural world. Gardner has also added spiritual and existential intelligence, but has not yet clearly defined these two intelligences (Plucker, 2002).
Gardner reached his conclusions based on two aspects of his work. On the practical side, he was concerned about the almost exclusive emphasis on linguistic and logical-mathematical symbolisation in school environments, and on the theoretical side, which he explored in his studies published with Hatch, the development and breakdown of cognitive and symbol-using capacities (Gardner & Hatch, 1993).
In his own studies Gardner became convinced that separate psychological processes are involved in dealing with linguistic, numerical, pictorial, gestural and other symbolic systems (Gardner & Hatch, 1993:65). Gardner found that individuals may be more talented with one form of symbol use than with others, and that there was not necessarily any carry-over to other forms of symbol use. This finding convinced Gardner that the Piagetian view of intellect was flawed. Piaget had conceptualised all aspects of symbol use as a single semiotic function, quite contrary to Gardner 's findings (Gardner & Hatch, 65). Gardner 's conceptualisation of human intelligence took into account a wide variety of cultural and historical settings. This stretched the concept of intelligence beyond its usual application in educational psychology, leading him to propose a number of relatively autonomous human intelligence s.
Gardner was concerned about the overwhelming emphasis in school settings on linguistic and logical capacities in the construction of items on intelligence, aptitude and achievement tests. He proposed that if different kinds of assessment instruments were used, then a different view of the human intellect might emerge (Gardner & Hatch, 1993:65). In these settings, problem solving is considered a crucial component, but the ability to design a product - to write a symphony, produce a painting, stage a play and manage an organisation - is not considered. Gardner also noted that each culture emphasises particular intelligences. For example he described the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes across the ocean, and the balance of personal intelligences required in Japanese society ( Gardner , 2002). The eight multiple intelligences develop differently depending on the cultural and personal contacts of individuals as they grow. The intelligences rarely operate independently of each other, but rather are used together and complement each other (Vincent and Ross, 2001).
Gardner (1999:34) defines intelligence as:
A biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture.
He explains that intelligence is not necessarily exhibited in its raw state; rather, individuals prepare to use their intelligence by passing through a developmental process (Plucker, 2002). Critics of multiple intelligences believe that the eight multiple intelligences are a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct (Plucker, 2002). Gardner 's response to the belief that an intelligence is the same as a domain or a discipline was to distinguish it from a domain, which he described as a culturally relevant, organised set of activities characterised by a symbol system and a set of operation. For example, dance performance is a domain that relies on the use of bodily-kinaesthetic and musical intelligence (Plucker, 2002).
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