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• Module overview
• 1. Introduction to knowledge management
  • 1.1 Knowledge management in organisations: Theory and practice
  • 1.2 Information and knowledge
    • 1.2.1 Distinguishing information, data, knowledge and wisdom
    • 1.2.2 Knowledge defined and managed

• 2. Type and structure of knowledge

  • 2.1 Type and structure of knowledge
    • 2.1.1 The structure of purposeful knowledge in an organisation
    • 2.1.2 Explicit and tacit knowledge
  • 2.2 Acquiring knowledge
    • 2.2.1 Sources of knowledge

• 3. Knowledge and learning

  • 3.1 The ability to learn as knowledge
  • 3.2 Types of knowledge and culture, meaning, and learning
  • 3.3. Knowledge management and balanced learning strategies

• 4. A knowledge management cycle

  • 4.1 A Knowledge Management Framework
    • 4.1.1 Stages in KM Cycle
  • 4.2 Dimensions to KM Strategy
    • 4.2.1 Leadership dimension to KM
    • 4.2.2 Governance and policy dimension
    • 4.2.3 Architecture dimension
    • 4.2.4 Absorption dimension
    • 4.2.5 Measurement dimension
  • 4.3 Knowledge as a basis for organising

• 5. Conduct a knowledge audit

  • 5.1 Knowledge audit
    • 5.1.1 Conducting a knowledge audit
    • 5.1.2 The Audit Process

• 6. Organisational Knowledge Capital

  • 6.1 Building an organisational Knowledge Capital framework
    • 6.1.1 IC and KC
    • 6.1.2 The value of knowledge
  • 6.2 Structural capital
  • 6.3 Social capital
  • 6.4 Human Capital defined
    • 6.4.1 Capital resources for organisations
    • 6.4.2 The individual as a capital resource
    • 6.4.3 Ingredients to HCM

• 7. Valuing forms of knowledge

  • 7.1 Valuing forms of knowledge assets
    • 7.1.1 Valuing Intellectual assets
    • 7.1.2 Valuing knowledge as an intangible asset

• 8. Information management systems

  • 8.1 Information management systems
    • 8.1.1 A basic information management framework
    • 8.1.2 Building systems to meet individual and organisational needs
    • 8.1.3 Information guardians versus stakeholders
  • 8.2 Structure and information transfer
    • 8.2.1 Information relevance and timeliness
    • 8.2.2 Information characteristics versus decision types
    • 8.2.3 Storage and retrieval

• 9. Information capture and intelligence gathering

  • 9.1 Information capture and intelligence gathering
    • 9.1.1 Developing a 'wish list'
    • 9.1.2 Finding answers
    • 9.1.3 Integrating intelligence within a knowledge management framework
  • 9.2 Forecasting methods
    • 9.2.1 Issues to consider when forecasting

• 10. IT and E-commerce

  • 10.1 An overview of e-commerce
  • 10.2 The Internet, computer networks and e-commerce
    • 10.2.1 Internet speed, innovation and change
  • 10.3 E-commerce advantages and disadvantages
    • 10.3.1 E-commerce advantages
    • 10.3.2 E-commerce disadvantages and constraints
  • 10.4 The Internet and business
    • 10.4.1 Drivers of e-commerce and Internet growth
  • 10.5 E-commerce and e-business

• 11. IT and supply chain management

  • 11.1 Electronic supply chain management (eSCM)
  • 11.2 E-logistics
    • 11.2.1 Are e-logistics and e-commerce the same thing?
    • 11.2.2 E-logistics blurs older logistic business categories
  • 11.3 E-procurement
  • 11.4 E-fulfilment

4.1.1 Stages in KM Cycle

The following figure isolates the central element of the larger KM Framework. This refers to the four stage KM strategy cycle.

Figure 2 KM strategy cycle

Conceptualise

The Conceptualise stage is the usual commencement point for KM implementation. This is where the process of KM has to be structured and linked as both a philosophy and framework to strategic imperatives. The objectives of the KM strategy have to be aligned and attuned with business objectives. Business strategies both determine the parameters of the KM framework and the outcomes it must achieve. It is within the parameters of strategic imperatives and goals that any measurement of value creation for knowledge must also reside.

KM must also reside within or enhance existing business planning processes.

The Conceptualise stage will be where the concept of KM in terms of the framework and underpinning theory will be extended into the analysis of knowledge requirements. This involves developing a robust concept of the measures that can be used to identify and value knowledge and the capabilities that exist or are required at all levels within the organisation.

By the end of this stage the KM framework should become visible to all key stakeholders. This may come in the form of a vision of what and how this approach will hold mutual benefit. Best practice suggests this vision should occur before implementation of KM enters into a planning process that will actualise the concept.

Plan

After determining why KM is occurring and linking reasons with strategic imperatives the Plan stage aligns KM with strategy and thence the organisation’s capabilities and resources. The Plan stage will translate the systems-level KM framework ‘vision’ into a KM Strategy. The strategy has to encompass all aspects of knowledge from capture, transfer, and through to generation.

At this stage organisations also start (if they have not already done so) to collect intelligence on key competitors, markets and such like to develop contingencies about future scenarios. Contingencies allow risks to be modelled and potential solutions, options and priority actions to emerge. Review of plans and supporting goals and measures permit collaboration and the function of KM to be advanced with growing purpose. Done with thought this stage can promote organisational and individual learning whereby purpose develops meaning and, in turn, meaning translates into individual behaviours that support a culture of KM.

Contextualise

The Contextualise stage is where user access and the enabling infrastructure (i.e. Information technology – hardware, applications and software, networks, or communication technology) are activated. This stage is all about situated application. For the user this means the knowledge architecture exists to make knowledge:

• Easy to access;
• Personalised;
• Controllable;
• Current, relevant and accurate;
• Timely;
• Available in communities or collaborative systems; and
• Available on demand through search, discovery and retrieval processes (anywhere anytime).

All the above actions have to optimise the flow of knowledge to the individual and teams involved. This has to occur for the knowledge required to meet customer service or performance requirements and priorities the organisation has set. It also has to occur no matter what the knowledge structure or dimension (tacit-explicit, mobile-embedded, strategic-tactical, etc.).

Improve

The improvement stage is where feedback occurs and KM execution cycles conclude. This final stage in this four stage cyclic model merge discussions and reports on outcomes from individuals, teams, business units, partners and organisational leaders. This stage is about triggering improvement; ensuring that current cycle positively achieves the goals and measures set in the KM strategy. The Improve stage is not only where goal attainment is measured but also where comparatively, by any measure used, perpetual improvements upon previous cycles are confirmed. This leads to a reconceptualising of KM and the setting of revised goals when the KM cycle is recommenced.

The Improve stage has to capture knowledge on knowledge. While somewhat tautological, implementation of KM strategies may not be effective in terms of either the previous stages in the KM cycle or the tools, technologies and processes being deployed. Improvement should therefore seek to report on shortcomings. The following table gives some indications of the issues to be monitored and the possible indicators.

Table 1 Monitoring effectiveness of the KM Strategy

Issue	Indicator
Accuracy, accessibility and speed of knowledge flow to point of use	User satisfaction Errors Delays Problem or decision resolution (timed, frequency, duration, call-backs, etc) Usage levels on different communication mediums/ networks
Accuracy and accessibility of Intelligence associated with problem avoidance, compliance or sales	Error rates Product knowledge ‘Point of Truth’ for product or compliance information Timed use of knowledge sources (learning, quizzes, knowledge banks, etc.) Complaints Breaches
Personalisation	Effectiveness self-help strategies User satisfaction and/or expectations measurement (self-efficacy in terms of pre and post learning or knowledge access by user)
Optimise access	Frequency of access Numbers of users Duration of use Location of use Demographics of use

The above table is a simple example of some issues and the types of measures that can be used. It is not meant to be an exhaustive list of possible issues or measures.

 

Activity 1

This activity relates to a survey form used to assess aspects of knowledge for a dispatch clerk in a small transport company. The tool was used for 6 employees. Reflect on this tool. Now modify the tool and use it in your own workplace for a specific position/ job role.

Instructions

Aspects of my job relate to areas where workers relationship to knowledge management (KM) in their organisation can be assessed.

Ability to do this is a rating scale to be used by the employee to rank whether the Aspect of my job being assessed can be done by them.

Importance to me is a response column for the individual employee to rank how important it is to them to actually be able to address this aspect of knowledge.

How to measure is a column to be used by the employee, usually with a supervisor, to determine in what ways an aspect of knowledge may be measured to determine if it is being accurately addressed.

Ranking response

For both the “Ability to do this” and the “Importance to me” columns the employee should place the following ranking:

1 = Not at all; 2= Rarely; 3= Neutral; 4 = Somewhat; 5 = Always.

 

	Aspect of my job	Ability to do this	Importance to me	How to measure
	I know where to find solutions if I encounter a customer enquiry I cannot resolve
	I know where to find solutions if I encounter a problem with our technology I cannot resolve
	I know where to find solutions if I encounter a compliance form or procedure I cannot resolve
	I have the technology or means to access sources of knowledge I need to do my work
	I have immediate access to knowledge relating to products and services I am responsible for delivering
	Access to all required knowledge is built into my workflows
	I can save solutions of critical knowledge I gain from my work so it can be reused by others
	In accessing solutions to problems my technology knows who I am or allows me to search content or systems based on my specific needs
	I can access what I need to know immediately
	I can access what I need to know from any location (behind my desk or mobile)
	Solutions and knowledge I access is up to date and
	When presented with solutions or knowledge they are ranked and sorted to what I need to know
	I understand the importance of using the right information
	We know the company places a heavy importance on giving everyone the knowledge required to serve customers or do their work to the agreed standard

 

The aim of the above tool is to find the 1-5 aspects of knowledge. This is where the ‘Ability to do this' is very low and the ‘Importance to me’ is always present. It is in these areas strategies can be established to ensure the employee can actually gain immediate benefit from knowledge strategies that are simply seen as ‘enhancements to my work’.

All the above ‘Aspects of my job’ are indicative and can be extended or modified. Of course the more specific the aspects, the more targeted the responses can be.

Reading 1

From Set Text Chapter 15 - Zack, MH (2002), ‘Developing a Knowledge Strategy: Epilogue’ in Choo, C & Bontis, N (eds) (2002), The Strategic Management of Intellectual Capital and Organizational Knowledge , New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 255-276. (Available in original form and as epilogue at http://web.cba.neu.edu/~mzack/articles/kstrat/kstrat.htm & http://web.cba.neu.edu/~mzack/articles/kstrat2/kstrat2.htm).

Reading 2

Rollo, C (April, 2002), ‘The Knowledge Strategy Within a Business Context’, The Third European Conference on Organisational Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities (OKLC). Available at http://is.lse.ac.uk/Support/OKLC_2002/pdf_files/ID138.pdf

Activity 2

Examine and analyse both the above readings. Zack gives one of the earliest views on how to develop an integrated KM strategy. The reading from Rollo is more backward looking, reviewing best practice examples on the implementation of KM strategies.

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