• Home
• Module overview
• 1. The challenge of management
  • Introduction
  • 1.1 Defining management
    • 1.1.1 The art of getting things done through people
    • 1.1.2 Defining management by its functions
    • 1.1.3 Is management a profession?
  • 1.2 Management knowledge , skills and performance
    • 1.2.1 Types of managers
    • 1.2.2 Effectiveness and efficiency
    • 1.2.3 Managing the customer within
  • 1.3 The evolution of management thought
  • Conclusion

• 2. Understanding external environments

  • Introduction
  • 2.1 Putting the e xternal environment into focus
    • 2.1.1 Classifying external elements
    • 2.1.2 The changing environment
    • 2.1.3 The international dimension
  • 2.2 Relating the o rganisation to its environment
    • 2.2.1 So many issues: Which should you focus on?
    • 2.2.2 How do you acquire the relevant information?
    • 2.2.3 Clarifying the relationship between the internal and external environments
  • Conclusion

• 3. Social responsibility and ethics in management

  • Introduction
  • 3.1 Business is not value neutral: Social responsibility, obligation and responsiveness
  • 3.2 Focussing on ethics
    • 3.2.1 Why business ethics now?
    • 3.2.2 Ethical quandaries
    • 3.2.3 Approaches to ethical dilemmas
    • 3.2.4 Defining your ethics
  • Conclusion

• 4. Managerial decision making

  • Introduction
  • 4.1 Decision making and problem solving
  • 4.2 The nature of decision making as part of management
    • 4.2.1 Programmed and non-programmed decisions
    • 4.2.2 Certainty, risk and uncertainty
    • 4.2.3 Urgent vs important decisions
  • 4.3 Problem solving: making the most of opportunities
    • 4.3.1 Looking further at problem solving
    • 4.3.2 The effective decision making process
    • 4.3.3 Improving managerial problem solving: overcoming barriers
    • 4.3.4 Thinking 'outside the box' and creativity
  • 4.4 Interrelated problems
  • Conclusion

• 5. Managing strategically

  • Introduction
  • 5.1 Planning ahead
  • 5.2 Strategic management
    • 5.2.1 Some definitions
    • 5.2.2 The process of strategic management
  • Conclusion

• 6. Organisational design and structure

  • Introduction
  • 6.1 The terminology of organisational design
  • 6.2 Strategic organisational design and structure
    • 6.2.1 Types of organisational structure
    • 6.2.2 Strategic organisational design
  • 6.3 Teamwork
    • 6.3.1 The success of teamwork
  • Conclusion

• 7. Organisational culture and workforce diversity

  • Introduction
  • 7.1 Defining organisational or corporate culture
    • 7.1.1 Culture defined through its response to change
    • 7.1.2 Culture defined through the influence of the external environment
  • 7.2 Strong and weak cultures
  • 7.3 The functions of culture
  • 7.4 Creating and sustaining culture
  • 7.5 Types of culture
    • 7.5.1 Dominant culture
    • 7.5.2 Subculture
    • 7.5.3 Core values
  • 7.6 Changing culture
  • 7.7 Cultural diversity in the maritime industry
  • Conclusion

• 8. Change management

  • Introduction
  • 8.1 Dealing with change and the changing nature of change
    • 8.1.1 In what areas of the organisation can managers expect change?
    • 8.1.2 Reacting to change
  • 8.2 Key issues accelerating change
    • 8.2.1 External forces
    • 8.2.2 Internal forces
  • 8.3 Managing change
    • 8.3.1 Reactions to change
    • 8.3.2 Why employees resist change
    • 8.3.3 Emotions accompanying change
    • 8.3.4 Overcoming resistance
    • 8.3.5 Leadership and successful change
  • Conclusion

• 9. Motivating for performance

  • Introduction
  • 9.1 The nature of motivation
  • 9.2 Theories of motivation
    • 9.2.1 Do rewards really work? needs theories
    • 9.2.2 Are substantive rewards the only motivator? process theories
    • 9.2.3 Learning behaviour reinforcement theory
    • 9.2.4 Social learning theory
    • 9.2.5 Putting it all together systems theory
  • 9.3 The power of positive thinking
  • 9.4 Motivation: The implications for managers
  • Conclusion

• 10. Leadership

  • Introduction
  • 10.1 The nature of leadership
    • 10.1.1 Thinking about 'leaders' and 'leadership'
    • 10.1.2 Theories of leadership
    • 10.1.3 Refining our definition of leadership
  • 10.2 Perspectives on leadership
    • 10.2.1 Manager, leader, or both?
  • Conclusion

• 11. Teamwork

  • Introduction
  • 11.1 Work groups and group dynamics
    • 11.1.1 Work groups, work teams, taskforces, self-managing teams and team building
    • 11.1.2 High-performance teams
  • 11.2 Managing meetings and committees
  • 11.3 Group decision making
    • 11.3.1 Some advantages and disadvantages
    • 11.3.2 So, do groups make better decisions than individuals?
  • Conclusion

• 12. Managerial evaluation and control

  • Introduction
  • 12.1 Evaluation and control as a management process
    • 12.1.1 Why evaluate and control performance?
    • 12.1.2 Getting and using necessary information
  • 12.2 Levels of control
  • 12.3 Steps in the control process
  • 12.4 Assessing control systems
  • 12.5 Back to ethics
  • 12.6 Quality control systems
  • Conclusion

1.2 Management knowledge, skills and performance

However management is defined, it is clear that the role of a good manager is critical to the success of an organisation. What is less obvious is what specifically constitutes a good manager.

The functions of a manager's position that are traditionally recognised require that the manager possess communication and leadership skills and the knowledge and ability to apply decision making tools. The formulation and implementation of strategy, the organisation of people and physical resources and the motivation of people are fundamental requirements of the managerial role.

Whetten and Cameron (1991, page 8) interviewed 402 highly effective managers as identified by their peers and superiors. Their study identified the following as the most frequently cited skills of effective managers:

• verbal communication (including listening)
• managing time and stress
• managing individual decisions
• recognising, defining and solving problems
• motivating and influencing others
• delegating
• setting goals and articulating a vision
• self-awareness
• team building
• managing conflict.

Notice that these ten characteristics are all behavioural skills . They are not personality attributes or styles; neither are they generalisations such as luck or timing. While there is nothing unusual in this list it may assist you to understand the scope of a manager's role. Notice that the management of time and stress is included in the list; and the importance of communication cannot be overlooked.

The findings of Whetten and Cameron are reinforced by the following table, adapted from Robbins and Mukerji (1994). In their research, the authors tabulated selected skills and personal characteristics that are valuable to managers. The authors considered that a broad set of competencies was needed to achieve success in management.

Table 1.1: Skills and personal characteristics valuable to managers

planning and organising	the ability to establish a course of action, to achieve goals and to allocate resources and personnel to accomplish necessary tasks
leadership	the ability to use interpersonal relationships to stimulate and guide people towards the accomplishment of important tasks
delegation and control	the ability to define tasks and assign work to others and to monitor performance to ensure task accomplishment
information gathering	the ability to analyse problems, to identify key issues, interpret and integrate themes and search for relevant information
decision making	the ability to use logic and information to choose between alternative courses and to commit oneself to a resulting course of action
written and oral communication	the ability to express one's ideas or viewpoints in writing, to make oral presentations and to communicate with others both individually and in groups
self-objectivity	the ability to evaluate realistically personal strengths and weaknesses and to understand one's skills and motives in relation to a job

Robbins S and Mukerji D (1994). Managing Organisations: New Challenges and Perspectives .
2nd edition. New York : Prentice Hall, page 13.

Personal characteristics in addition to those mentioned above include:

• tolerance of uncertainty and the ability to accomplish in uncertain or unstructured situations
• the ability to operate without bias towards race, ethnic origin, gender, etc
• the ability to set and monitor high performance standards
• the ability and flexibility to adapt to changes
• the ability to consistently be decisive and display personal innovation (self-confidence).

When the key management functions are performed by managers with superior managerial knowledge and personal attributes, the result is usually a highly productive and quality focused work environment.

It seems that one of the most vital characteristics of a successful manager (and people) is attitude . Attitude - a 'small' word on paper that makes a 'big' difference in practice.

An aside: A note on attitude

Attitudes. We hear a lot about them, but exactly what is attitude. We seem to use the term almost routinely every day. Our use of the word generally refers to a person's outlook on life, overall, and in relation to his or her job.

Nothing will improve relationships with those you work more than a consistently positive attitude on your part. Your attitude sets the 'pace' and the 'tone' in your section and with the team that you supervise. If you are late to work, constantly miss deadlines or overlook things, it will be reflected in the attitude of your employees. If you complain about conditions it will impact in a negative way on the attitude of your team. There is a direct relationship between your attitude and the productivity of those your supervise. When you are 'upbeat', your team is likely to respond in a positive manner. When you are negative and pessimistic, a drop in productivity can be expected.

Attitude is the way you look at things mentally. You have the power to see your position as a manager in any way you wish.

One of the classic quotes on attitude was by Henry Ford:

Whether you think you can or think you can't - you're right.

The following reading discusses how a successful transition from professional specialist to manager requires new skills.

Reading 1.3

Feldman, Kerry (1998, June). 'Great specialist but poor manager?' HRMonthy , pages 34 and 35.

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