• Home
• Module overview
• 1. The challenge of management
  • Introduction
  • 1.1 Defining management
    • 1.1.1 The art of getting things done through people
    • 1.1.2 Defining management by its functions
    • 1.1.3 Is management a profession?
  • 1.2 Management knowledge , skills and performance
    • 1.2.1 Types of managers
    • 1.2.2 Effectiveness and efficiency
    • 1.2.3 Managing the customer within
  • 1.3 The evolution of management thought
  • Conclusion

• 2. Understanding external environments

  • Introduction
  • 2.1 Putting the e xternal environment into focus
    • 2.1.1 Classifying external elements
    • 2.1.2 The changing environment
    • 2.1.3 The international dimension
  • 2.2 Relating the o rganisation to its environment
    • 2.2.1 So many issues: Which should you focus on?
    • 2.2.2 How do you acquire the relevant information?
    • 2.2.3 Clarifying the relationship between the internal and external environments
  • Conclusion

• 3. Social responsibility and ethics in management

  • Introduction
  • 3.1 Business is not value neutral: Social responsibility, obligation and responsiveness
  • 3.2 Focussing on ethics
    • 3.2.1 Why business ethics now?
    • 3.2.2 Ethical quandaries
    • 3.2.3 Approaches to ethical dilemmas
    • 3.2.4 Defining your ethics
  • Conclusion

• 4. Managerial decision making

  • Introduction
  • 4.1 Decision making and problem solving
  • 4.2 The nature of decision making as part of management
    • 4.2.1 Programmed and non-programmed decisions
    • 4.2.2 Certainty, risk and uncertainty
    • 4.2.3 Urgent vs important decisions
  • 4.3 Problem solving: making the most of opportunities
    • 4.3.1 Looking further at problem solving
    • 4.3.2 The effective decision making process
    • 4.3.3 Improving managerial problem solving: overcoming barriers
    • 4.3.4 Thinking 'outside the box' and creativity
  • 4.4 Interrelated problems
  • Conclusion

• 5. Managing strategically

  • Introduction
  • 5.1 Planning ahead
  • 5.2 Strategic management
    • 5.2.1 Some definitions
    • 5.2.2 The process of strategic management
  • Conclusion

• 6. Organisational design and structure

  • Introduction
  • 6.1 The terminology of organisational design
  • 6.2 Strategic organisational design and structure
    • 6.2.1 Types of organisational structure
    • 6.2.2 Strategic organisational design
  • 6.3 Teamwork
    • 6.3.1 The success of teamwork
  • Conclusion

• 7. Organisational culture and workforce diversity

  • Introduction
  • 7.1 Defining organisational or corporate culture
    • 7.1.1 Culture defined through its response to change
    • 7.1.2 Culture defined through the influence of the external environment
  • 7.2 Strong and weak cultures
  • 7.3 The functions of culture
  • 7.4 Creating and sustaining culture
  • 7.5 Types of culture
    • 7.5.1 Dominant culture
    • 7.5.2 Subculture
    • 7.5.3 Core values
  • 7.6 Changing culture
  • 7.7 Cultural diversity in the maritime industry
  • Conclusion

• 8. Change management

  • Introduction
  • 8.1 Dealing with change and the changing nature of change
    • 8.1.1 In what areas of the organisation can managers expect change?
    • 8.1.2 Reacting to change
  • 8.2 Key issues accelerating change
    • 8.2.1 External forces
    • 8.2.2 Internal forces
  • 8.3 Managing change
    • 8.3.1 Reactions to change
    • 8.3.2 Why employees resist change
    • 8.3.3 Emotions accompanying change
    • 8.3.4 Overcoming resistance
    • 8.3.5 Leadership and successful change
  • Conclusion

• 9. Motivating for performance

  • Introduction
  • 9.1 The nature of motivation
  • 9.2 Theories of motivation
    • 9.2.1 Do rewards really work? needs theories
    • 9.2.2 Are substantive rewards the only motivator? process theories
    • 9.2.3 Learning behaviour reinforcement theory
    • 9.2.4 Social learning theory
    • 9.2.5 Putting it all together systems theory
  • 9.3 The power of positive thinking
  • 9.4 Motivation: The implications for managers
  • Conclusion

• 10. Leadership

  • Introduction
  • 10.1 The nature of leadership
    • 10.1.1 Thinking about 'leaders' and 'leadership'
    • 10.1.2 Theories of leadership
    • 10.1.3 Refining our definition of leadership
  • 10.2 Perspectives on leadership
    • 10.2.1 Manager, leader, or both?
  • Conclusion

• 11. Teamwork

  • Introduction
  • 11.1 Work groups and group dynamics
    • 11.1.1 Work groups, work teams, taskforces, self-managing teams and team building
    • 11.1.2 High-performance teams
  • 11.2 Managing meetings and committees
  • 11.3 Group decision making
    • 11.3.1 Some advantages and disadvantages
    • 11.3.2 So, do groups make better decisions than individuals?
  • Conclusion

• 12. Managerial evaluation and control

  • Introduction
  • 12.1 Evaluation and control as a management process
    • 12.1.1 Why evaluate and control performance?
    • 12.1.2 Getting and using necessary information
  • 12.2 Levels of control
  • 12.3 Steps in the control process
  • 12.4 Assessing control systems
  • 12.5 Back to ethics
  • 12.6 Quality control systems
  • Conclusion

10.1.3 Refining our definition of leadership

It could be that all of the research approaches have some validity to them. Leadership, as already stated, is a very complex concept and leaders appear in a variety of contexts. Generally, however, they share certain behavioural and personality traits and function in similar ways.

Your textbook defines leadership (in the management context) as:

• the process of influencing others toward organisational goal achievement.
• Following are some other definitions of leadership in terms of management:
• Leadership [is] the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.
• Robbins, S P; Millett, B; Cacioppe, R and Waters-Marsh, T (1998). Organisational Behaviour . Prentice-Hall.
• Leaders [are] those who are able to influence others and who possess managerial authority.

Robbins, S and Mukerji, D (1994). Managing Organisations: New Challenges and Perspectives . 2nd edition. New York : Prentice Hall, page 364.

Consider this

What do you notice is common in all these definitions?

It is possible to define leadership according to its effect on the behaviour of the individuals within the workgroup or organisation. The definitions given above recognise leadership as a continuing activity oriented towards influencing the behaviour of others and which ultimately focuses on achieving individual and organisational goals.

Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as being formally appointed. Informal leadership can therefore be as influential as formal leadership as far as the group is concerned.

Whether we like it or not, a harsh economic climate and the changing face of society have resulted in a change in the approach to the role of managers as leaders. One often hears of compulsory control being replaced by voluntary cooperation based on trust and respect, leading to a commitment to common goals.

Think about the above in relation to the following example by Tallack (1996) of the changing role of the 'Master and the leader':

The Master and the leader

No Master can be expected to achieve this magical transformation in isolation and there will be times when autocratic leadership is required, although even then, if the crew is a team, the objectives will be achieved much more effectively. Management is changing in a changing society; the traditional way of ordering from above without releasing enough real power to enable the management team to achieve objectives has brought the downfall of some pretty impressive captains of history.

Taken from Tallack, R (1996). Commercial Management for Shipmasters: A Practical Guide . The Nautical Institute.

Power and influence: two aspects of leadership. Two qualities all leaders seem to share are forcefulness (power) and the ability to influence others. Think about power and influence as you read the following:

Reading 10.4

Kuwahata, Y and Allred, G T (1957). Kamikaze . Ballantine Books, Random House, Inc. as cited in Reitz, H J (1987). Chapter 15 'Power, influence and politics'. In Behaviour in Organisations . 3rd edition. USA : Irwin, pages 429-430.

Influence. The above story describes the day Yasuo Kuwahara escorted his lifelong friend, Tatsuno, to a fiery death as a Japanese suicide pilot. These two Kamikazes were only 17-years-old. It is difficult to imagine being in their place, obeying without complaint, an order to fly with your closest friend on one last mission. In the last ten months of the war, over 5000 Japanese pilots obeyed the final order to die the death of a Kamikaze. How could so many individuals be influenced to make the ultimate sacrifice in a losing cause?

To a large degree, the influence can be attributed to various socialisation processes these pilots had experienced, right from childhood through to combat training, that resulted in their internalising values which made the act of self-destruction honourable, glorious and inevitable. Their leaders did not hesitate to exercise the power and the influence they had over the members of their armed forces.

Power. Think about the following situations: a young executive rapidly achieves promotion to a high level; a group of employees takes industrial action for increased wages and succeeds; a manager overrides a recommendation to carry a dangerous product; two sections join together to defeat a motion of resource allocation. All of these examples involve the use of power . In each case their must have been some individual or individuals who lead others in achieving a common goal.

What is the source of a leader's power, influence and authority? A leader's power may come from any or all of the following sources:

• legitimate or authority
  Leaders are the 'bosses'. Holding a higher position gives them legitimate authority.
• rewards
  Leaders have the power to offer rewards as encouragement and incentives for performance.
• coercion or punishment
  Leaders have the power to punish people for poor performance.
• expertise
  Leaders are experts in their field. People recognise this and are willing to listen.
• referent power or charisma
  Leaders are charismatic, charming and appealing. They have the ability to attract and influence people to follow them.
• information
  Leaders hold or have access to vital information and contacts, and this gives them power.

Leaders have considerable power, then, for a variety of reasons. However, the possession of power alone is not enough for effective leadership. A leader must know how to use and apply that power effectively.

Consider this

Distrust all men in whom the impulse to punish is powerful.

Friedrich Nietzsche

then there's

Knowledge is power. Proper application of it is wisdom.

Ron Schreiner from Minneapolis , MN

In your text

Bartol, K M; Martin, D C; Tein, M H and Matthews, G W (2001),
pages 398-400.

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