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• Module overview
• 1. The challenge of management
  • Introduction
  • 1.1 Defining management
    • 1.1.1 The art of getting things done through people
    • 1.1.2 Defining management by its functions
    • 1.1.3 Is management a profession?
  • 1.2 Management knowledge , skills and performance
    • 1.2.1 Types of managers
    • 1.2.2 Effectiveness and efficiency
    • 1.2.3 Managing the customer within
  • 1.3 The evolution of management thought
  • Conclusion

• 2. Understanding external environments

  • Introduction
  • 2.1 Putting the e xternal environment into focus
    • 2.1.1 Classifying external elements
    • 2.1.2 The changing environment
    • 2.1.3 The international dimension
  • 2.2 Relating the o rganisation to its environment
    • 2.2.1 So many issues: Which should you focus on?
    • 2.2.2 How do you acquire the relevant information?
    • 2.2.3 Clarifying the relationship between the internal and external environments
  • Conclusion

• 3. Social responsibility and ethics in management

  • Introduction
  • 3.1 Business is not value neutral: Social responsibility, obligation and responsiveness
  • 3.2 Focussing on ethics
    • 3.2.1 Why business ethics now?
    • 3.2.2 Ethical quandaries
    • 3.2.3 Approaches to ethical dilemmas
    • 3.2.4 Defining your ethics
  • Conclusion

• 4. Managerial decision making

  • Introduction
  • 4.1 Decision making and problem solving
  • 4.2 The nature of decision making as part of management
    • 4.2.1 Programmed and non-programmed decisions
    • 4.2.2 Certainty, risk and uncertainty
    • 4.2.3 Urgent vs important decisions
  • 4.3 Problem solving: making the most of opportunities
    • 4.3.1 Looking further at problem solving
    • 4.3.2 The effective decision making process
    • 4.3.3 Improving managerial problem solving: overcoming barriers
    • 4.3.4 Thinking 'outside the box' and creativity
  • 4.4 Interrelated problems
  • Conclusion

• 5. Managing strategically

  • Introduction
  • 5.1 Planning ahead
  • 5.2 Strategic management
    • 5.2.1 Some definitions
    • 5.2.2 The process of strategic management
  • Conclusion

• 6. Organisational design and structure

  • Introduction
  • 6.1 The terminology of organisational design
  • 6.2 Strategic organisational design and structure
    • 6.2.1 Types of organisational structure
    • 6.2.2 Strategic organisational design
  • 6.3 Teamwork
    • 6.3.1 The success of teamwork
  • Conclusion

• 7. Organisational culture and workforce diversity

  • Introduction
  • 7.1 Defining organisational or corporate culture
    • 7.1.1 Culture defined through its response to change
    • 7.1.2 Culture defined through the influence of the external environment
  • 7.2 Strong and weak cultures
  • 7.3 The functions of culture
  • 7.4 Creating and sustaining culture
  • 7.5 Types of culture
    • 7.5.1 Dominant culture
    • 7.5.2 Subculture
    • 7.5.3 Core values
  • 7.6 Changing culture
  • 7.7 Cultural diversity in the maritime industry
  • Conclusion

• 8. Change management

  • Introduction
  • 8.1 Dealing with change and the changing nature of change
    • 8.1.1 In what areas of the organisation can managers expect change?
    • 8.1.2 Reacting to change
  • 8.2 Key issues accelerating change
    • 8.2.1 External forces
    • 8.2.2 Internal forces
  • 8.3 Managing change
    • 8.3.1 Reactions to change
    • 8.3.2 Why employees resist change
    • 8.3.3 Emotions accompanying change
    • 8.3.4 Overcoming resistance
    • 8.3.5 Leadership and successful change
  • Conclusion

• 9. Motivating for performance

  • Introduction
  • 9.1 The nature of motivation
  • 9.2 Theories of motivation
    • 9.2.1 Do rewards really work? needs theories
    • 9.2.2 Are substantive rewards the only motivator? process theories
    • 9.2.3 Learning behaviour reinforcement theory
    • 9.2.4 Social learning theory
    • 9.2.5 Putting it all together systems theory
  • 9.3 The power of positive thinking
  • 9.4 Motivation: The implications for managers
  • Conclusion

• 10. Leadership

  • Introduction
  • 10.1 The nature of leadership
    • 10.1.1 Thinking about 'leaders' and 'leadership'
    • 10.1.2 Theories of leadership
    • 10.1.3 Refining our definition of leadership
  • 10.2 Perspectives on leadership
    • 10.2.1 Manager, leader, or both?
  • Conclusion

• 11. Teamwork

  • Introduction
  • 11.1 Work groups and group dynamics
    • 11.1.1 Work groups, work teams, taskforces, self-managing teams and team building
    • 11.1.2 High-performance teams
  • 11.2 Managing meetings and committees
  • 11.3 Group decision making
    • 11.3.1 Some advantages and disadvantages
    • 11.3.2 So, do groups make better decisions than individuals?
  • Conclusion

• 12. Managerial evaluation and control

  • Introduction
  • 12.1 Evaluation and control as a management process
    • 12.1.1 Why evaluate and control performance?
    • 12.1.2 Getting and using necessary information
  • 12.2 Levels of control
  • 12.3 Steps in the control process
  • 12.4 Assessing control systems
  • 12.5 Back to ethics
  • 12.6 Quality control systems
  • Conclusion

4.3.4 Thinking 'outside the box' and creativity

A fundamental part of effective decision-making is evaluating alternatives. This should not be done until a number of alternatives have been generated. We now look at some techniques to assist you in the vital activity of generating alternatives.

For the next part of this chapter we will follow the chapter on 'Solving problems creatively' in Whetten and Cameron (1991) . Whilst this is a relatively old reading it covers some interesting and relevant areas particularly well. Their points have not gone out of style. We are moving into new and perhaps unfamiliar territory.

We shall, with the aid of some exercises and with Whetten and Cameron as a guide, look at what prevents us from generating alternatives and what we can do to allow ourselves the opportunity to develop these.

Do the problems in the following reading as you work your way through. You should find them interesting.

Read the section on conceptual blocks carefully. Whetten and Cameron (1991) make a very significant point in their 'Review of conceptual blocks' on page 188. They state that conceptual blocks are not [always] bad; not all problems can be addressed by creative problem solving. There is also a potential problem in that if we allow our minds just to run riot we may miss the obvious.

Activity 4.3 / Reading 4.2

Read pages 172 to 188 of the following reading.

Whetten, D A and Cameron, K S (1991). Extract from chapter 3 'Solving problems creatively'. In Developing Management Skills . 2nd edition. New York : Harper Collins Publishers, pages 172-208.

Go back to your list of decisions. Look at what you actually did in each case. Do your choices show any evidence of the conceptual blocks?

We are each bound by a different set of blocks. This can be illustrated by looking at a problem that is 'shared.' Some people, when they are trying to solve a problem, 'check with their colleagues' to see what other people think. When they come to you for an opinion, you sometimes hear comments like 'whatever made you think of that?'

This suggests that each person is looking at the problem differently. This also gives us a clue to a way of overcoming conceptual blocks. Can you identify it? We will return to this later.

The next section of Whetten and Cameron goes on to consider methods of overcoming blocks, an approach that is, we believe, far more helpful than just pointing them out. This section of Whetten and Cameron and the exercises should allow you to develop a little 'ambidextrous' thinking.

Reading 4.3 / Activity 4.4

Read pages 188-206 of the Whetten and Cameron reading (Reading 4.2).

Whetten, D A and Cameron, K S (1991). Extract from 'Appendix 1: Scoring keys and supplemental materials'. In Developing management skills . 2nd edition. New York : Harper Collins Publishers, pages 554-556.

Read this section carefully. Do the problems as you go. The solutions to these problems are contained in the Readings (Whetten, pages 554-556).

Your textbook also has a section of the creative factors in decision making. Note they also include the nine dot problem and have come up with some even more creative solutions.

In your text

Bartol, K M; Martin, D C; Tein, M H and Matthews, G W (2001), pages 144-149.

Consider this

You have probably heard of paradigms? Paradigms are underlying patterns, basic constructs, fundamental ways that we look at the world. Think about the effect that paradigms have on your decision making process.

Challenge false paradoxes

At the best companies, people aren't tyrannised by tradeoffs. They learn to shed 'either/or' thinking. In Western cultures we tend to see problems as dualisms that call for a choice of one solution over the other. Some of the most creative thinkers, however, have leant how to avoid that trap. They have learned the power of 'both/and' thinking.

It took the Japanese to show the Americans that it is possible to produce high quality products at low cost. American managers had been willing to accept a trade-off between quality and cost. Once you get used to 'both/and' thinking, you'll see more opportunities to use it.

Whenever you find yourself in an either/or paradox, try to turn it into a both/and opportunity.

Adapted from Hamermesh, R G (1996). 'Fad free management' . Vision Business Book Summaries , number 171.

An approach to overcoming some conceptual blocks and generating ideas is group decision making . We hinted at this in the section before this. (Remember we mentioned a clue to generating alternatives.)

Brainstorming is a very powerful tool for generating ideas. You may have participated in such a session. However, it is not as widely used as it could be because of people's initial resistance. Many people are not willing to take the plunge in case they 'look a bit of a fool.' Most people take quite easily to the idea of brainstorming once they have tried it.

The following reading outlines techniques for enhancing group creativity. We will cover groups and teams in detail in Chapter 12.

In your text

Bartol, K M; Martin, D C; Tein, M H and Matthews, G W (2001), pages 149-152.

Activity 4.5

Return to your list. Would any of the problems or decisions on it have benefited from application of any of these alternative generation tools?

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